As an overview, the psychological aftereffects of molestation may depend
upon one or more of the following variables (adapted from Katz & Mazur, 1979,
p. 247):
1. The age of the child is believed to affect
the degree to which a child is traumatized. Younger children are considered by
many to be more vulnerable to trauma; by contrast, MacFarlane (1978) noted that
older children may be hurt more because they are more fully aware of the social
stigma that is associated with sexual assault.
2. The psychological
condition of the victim: Child victims who have had prior emotional problems
(or who are emotionally vulnerable because they come from broken or unstable homes)
may experience more pronounced problems as a result of being assaulted, and those
problems may be longer lasting.
3. Sexual knowledge or experience: Children who have had no previous sexual experience may be more
vulnerable than others.
4. The type of assault: The
amount of violence and degree of bodily penetration are positively correlated
with trauma. Also, the extent to which the child believes his or her body has
been damaged by the event can contribute to the degree of trauma that is experienced
by the child.
5. Repeated assaults: Repeated assaults
may cause more psychological damage than an isolated assault.
6.
Molestation by a stranger versus a known, trusted offender: Sexual assault
by someone whom the child knows and trusts is more likely to cause lasting damage
than is assault by a stranger.
7. Reactions of others:
Negative reactions on the part of police, parents, teachers, peers, and/or family
friends or neighbors can contribute to the degree of trauma.
8.
Not being believed or supported: Children who are not believed or supported
by their parents or adult caretakers suffer more emotional trauma than do those
who are.
9. Therapy: As with adults, child victims of
sexual assault who receive psychotherapy are more likely to recover from it than
are those who do not receive treatment.
The traumatic sequelae
of childhood sexual abuse are best described in two categories: 1) symptoms that
usually occur in the first two years after the abuse has ceased; and 2) long-term
effects. The initial symptoms exhibited by sexually traumatized children will
be discussed in detail later in this chapter and can be summarized as follows:
fear and anxiety, sleep disturbances, somatic complaints, regressive behavior,
poor selfesteem, inability to trust, depression with its underlying anger and
hostility, poor school performance, inappropriate sexual behavior, guilt, shame,
and/or self-destructive behavior. The longer-term effects, which will be described
more fully in Chapter 7 on adults who were assaulted as children, can be summarized
as follows: depression, self-destructive or suicidal behavior, anxiety, feelings
of isolation and alienation, negative self-concept, impaired interpersonal relationships,
vulnerability to revictimization, a propensity to choose abusive mates, problems
with sexual adjustment, and/or substance or alcohol abuse.
One cannot review the assessment of the degree to which sexual assault
traumatizes children without discussing the persistent controversy about whether
or not the traumatic impact of assault has been overstated. In our opinion (in
accord with Finkeihor, 1984), one must view the impact that such an event has
upon a child in terms of a child's perceptions of pain and trauma. It would be
foolish to think of the only "true" trauma as that which leads to impairment
in the victim's later adult functioning.
Most people are aware
that certain traumatic events in the course of adult life such as rape, serious
physical injury, or the loss of a loved one may cause excruciating emotional suffering;
the seriousness of such events is accepted, even if they do not emotionally impair
the adult when he or she becomes elderly. In fact, most persons would be relieved
to learn that such traumatic events may not necessarily scar the rest of a person's
life. Why, then, are some so willing to dismiss childhood sexual trauma as not
being a serious matter unless it is shown to impair the child's life when he or
she grows into adulthood? Clearly the logic does not hold; but what is most disturbing
is the reluctance to accept the pain and suffering of childhood as being valid
in its own terms.
In conclusion, current research, as well
as clinical observation, strongly suggests that children are traumatized and suffer
emotionally as a direct result of their being sexually abused. Browne and Finkeihor
(1986) put it succinctly:
Because of the general lack of
research in this field, clinicians have only recently been able to substantiate
their impressions that sexual abuse is traumatic with evidence from strong scientific
studies. However, as evidence now accumulates, it conveys a clear suggestion that
sexual abuse is a serious mental health problem, consistently associated with
very disturbing subsequent problems in some important portion of its victims.
(p. 72)
As will be elaborated upon later in this book, the
currently available findings of long-term impact are especially persuasive.
- Sullivan-Everstine, Diana, & Louis Everstine, Sexual Trauma in Children
and Adolescents: Dynamics and Treatment, Brunner/Mazel Publishers, Inc.: New York,
1989.
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Personal
Reflection Exercise #7
The preceding section contained information
about key symptoms in the assessment of sexual trauma. Write three case study
examples regarding how you might use the content of this section in your practice.
Peer-Reviewed Journal Article References:
Ferrajão, P. C., & Elklit, A. (2020). World assumptions and posttraumatic stress in a treatment-seeking sample of survivors of childhood sexual abuse: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Violence, 10(5), 501–508.
Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. Advance online publication.
Schuler, M., Mohnke, S., Amelung, T., Dziobek, I., Lemme, B., Borchardt, V., Gerwinn, H., Kärgel, C., Kneer, J., Massau, C., Pohl, A., Tenbergen, G., Weiß, S., Wittfoth, M., Waller, L., Beier, K. M., Walter, M., Ponseti, J., Schiffer, B., . . . Walter, H. (2019). Empathy in pedophilia and sexual offending against children: A multifaceted approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(5), 453–464.
Online Continuing Education QUESTION
21
How is the traumatic sequelae of childhood sexual abuse thus described
by Sullivan? Record the letter of the correct answer the .
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